 |
Revision | |
Andrew Cooney | |
Trips |
A. Equipment
basic checklist for revision and exams:
* Pens plus refills/cartridges* Pencils (HB for multiple choice)* Coloured
pencils* Ruler - preferably 30cm* Protractor* Compass* Eraser* Pencil sharpener*
Calculator - check batteries
B. Conditions for Revision
1. Always work in a good light - by a table lamp or window.
2. Use a table/desk and chair - it will help you concentrate.
3. Have a window open a little for fresh air.
4. Make sure that you have all your equipment handy - text and exercise books,
atlas etc.,
5. Allocate an area of your room for study and keep it clear, tidy and organised
for work.
6. Work when you are alert - not when you are hungry, tired, unwell. Try to
get into a routine of a set time each day. Do not work late the night before
an exam.
C. Starting to revise - some suggestions.
Plan ahead. Draw up a timetable and stick to it for 2 weeks. Look back and see what is going well and what you need to change. Stick with that plan until the exams.
Make a list of what you need to revise - use the revision booklet as a guide.
Go through your exercise book and highlight the key points you need to learn.
Draw up a glossary of key words and terms under the main topic headings.
Use spider diagrams to highlight the main points for each case study.
Revise one topic at a time. Make sure that your revision notes are neat, tidy and easy to read. Once you have a neat set of notes you can review them easily. Put your notes onto cards.
Look at past exam questions and practice answers - first without reference to your notes, then with them to check what you have missed.
Work intensively and with full concentration for about 40 minutes at a time.
Any less and you will not cover all the work, any longer and you will lose
concentration.
At the end of each session relax and get away from your work area for about
10 minutes. Read through your notes on your return and then go onto a new topic/subject.
Vary your approach - work with a friend, talking through what you have revised
to find out how much you have taken in / understood.
Make use of the school and local library for books and CD-ROM resources.
And finally... THE EXAM!
Use the number of marks for each question as a guide on how much to write.
Make sure that you have given as much detail as possible in your answer. Give more than you think you need.
Keep an eye on the time and how much you have left to do. Don't leave questions out.
If you have a choice on the paper - MAKE SURE YOU ANSWER THE RIGHT QUESTIONS.
GCSE Examination Revision
This information is to help you revise for your GCSE exam in Geography. You
will need to refer to your textbook and your notes. If you have missed work
or have not completed it properly in your book, use the checklists, the textbook
or ask your teacher for the appropriate information sheet to complete it. Remember
that you will need to work hard and revise thoroughly if you are to get a good
grade.
IF YOU ARE UNSURE OF ANYTHING - ASK YOUR TEACHER FOR HELP.
GCSE Examinations
There are four main aspects that the exam will test;
Knowledge - this means learning some facts about a range of different places at different scales ( e.g. a whole city like Liverpool or a small area such as the Albert Dock) geographical ideas, processes and issues that you have studied. You need to learn your case studies and key words thoroughly. 30% of your marks will come from knowledge.
Understanding - you need to know how processes like erosion and deposition work and how features like corries and spits are formed and be able to explain them fully. You may have to make decisions about the best place to locate a factory for example and give reasons for your choice. 30% of your marks will come from understanding.
Skills - you need to be able to use maps, graphs, photographs, statistics and so on. You may need to draw a diagram or sketch map to help you explain an answer. Paper 1 has a skills section where you will be given an OS map and various graphs etc. and the questions will test whether you can analyse and interpret them. Don't forget the skills you used in your fieldwork to collect, present and analyse information. 40% of your marks will come from skills.
Attitudes and values - different groups of people have different views about issues - for example whether tourism should be encouraged or restricted in areas like the Cairngorms. These different views can lead to conflict. Some questions will try to find out whether you understand these different views and why different groups of people hold them.
Foundation or Higher Tier
You will know after the "mock" examination which tier you have been
entered for. The decision will have been based on the paper that will give
you the best chance of getting the highest grade you can. The questions on
the Foundation paper are clear and easy to understand. Higher questions are
usually more demanding and are often " open-ended", this means that
you need to organise your answer carefully, giving a variety of examples and
detailed reasons.
Understanding the question
You must read the question carefully and answer it in the right way to make sure that you get as many marks as possible. Always use geographical terms in your answers e.g. compass directions, use the scale of the map, give grid references. Here are some of the command words that you may be given;
Annotate - add notes or labels to a map or diagram to explain what it shows.
Compare - look for ways in which features or places are similar or different.
e.g. a city in an LEDC compared to a MEDC
Complete - add to a map or graph to finish it off.
Contrast - look for the differences between features or places. Often the question
will ask you to compare and contrast.
Define - explain what something means e.g. hydraulic action.
Describe - give details about what a map or diagram shows.
Discuss - usually wants a long answer, describing and giving reasons for or
explaining arguments for and against.
Draw - a sketch map or diagram with labels to explain something.
Explain or account for - give reasons for the location or appearance of something.
Factors - reasons for the location of something such as a factory.
Give your ( or somebody else's) views- say what you or a particular group think
about something , for example should limestone quarries be allowed in the Peak
District.
Identify - name, locate, recognise or select a particular feature or features,
usually from a map, photo or diagram.
Mark - put onto a map or diagram.
Name, state, list - give accurate details or features.
Study - look carefully at a map, photo, table, diagram etc. and say what it
shows.
With reference to /refer to examples you have studied - give specific details
about your case studies.
With the help of/using the information provided - make sure you include examples
from the information, including grid references if it is a map.
The Examination
You must read the instructions on the front of the paper very carefully.
YOU MUST ONLY DO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS INSTRUCTED. IF YOU DO ALL THE QUESTIONS
THE MARKS FOR EXTRA QUESTIONS WILL BE IGNORED AND YOU WILL HAVE WASTED YOUR
TIME. IF YOU DO A QUESTION ON A TOPIC YOU HAVE NOT BEEN TAUGHT IN THE 4TH AND
5TH YEAR, EVEN IF YOU THINK YOU CAN DO IT, YOU WILL NOT ACHIEVE A SATISFACTORY
MARK.
Written component 1 - 40% Marks
Section A will be on skills, using OS maps, photos, sketch maps, cross-sections,
satellite images and other resources. It will be based on the UK. Section B
will have 7 resource based, short-structured questions. You do three questions
from TECTONIC ACTIVITY, ICE, COASTS, RIVERS, ROCKS AND LANDSCAPES The other
questions are on weather and climate, and ecosystems.
Written component 2 - 35% of Marks
There are three sections, each with two resource-based, structured questions.
You answer three questions, one from each section. The sections are shown below
and the questions you should choose are highlighted.
Section A - POPULATION or Settlement
Section B - Agriculture or INDUSTRY
Section C - MANAGING RESOURCES AND TOURISM or Development and Interdependence.
Paper 1 - Map Skills
Grid references
The lines drawn across Ordnance Survey maps are called grid lines. The lines are numbered, eastings across the map, the numbers increasing eastwards, and northings from the top to the bottom of the map, the numbers increasing northwards. Always read EASTINGS FIRST. A four figure grid reference uses the easting then the northing number. The numbers meet in THE BOTTOM LEFT-HAND CORNER OF THE SQUARE. To give a six figure grid reference, you have to add a number between 1 and 9 along each grid line number. Remember eastings first, northings second, or " along the corridor, then up the stairs".
Direction
Directions can be given as points of the compass or compass bearings. Use
grid north on a map.
Symbols
The map will have a key but it would be helpful if you knew the main symbols.
Scale
All maps have a scale, we use it to work out the distances between places.
The scale can be shown in three ways;
A statement - 1 cm to 100 cm
A fraction or ratio - 1:100
A linear scale 0 100
To find out the real life size of an object you must multiply the measurements
in the drawing by the scale number. 0rdnance Survey maps are drawn to two main
scales
1:50,000 or 2 cm to 1km.
1: 25,000 or 4 cm to 1km.
Height and Slope - relief and contour patterns
Height on maps can be shown in three different ways;
Spot height · 56
Triangulation pillar D 416 ( blue) Usually at the top or summit of a hill.
Contour lines - join places with the same height.
Contour lines tell us the height of the land, they also tell us whether the
SLOPE of the land is STEEP or GENTLE. They show the shape of the land - this
is called RELIEF. The difference in height between contour lines is called
the CONTOUR INTERVAL, this is usually 10 metres. The closer the contour lines,
the steeper the slope.
FARMING
1: 2500 are ideal for conducting land-use surveys. The following is a general
land-use mapping code; Think about the factors that will encourage land to
be used for crops rather than animals
relief - height & slope
soils - e.g. alluvial ( floodplain)
drainage - is there evidence that the land gets water-logged
climate/weather conditions - rainfall, temperature, wind
aspect - direction the land is facing, south gets most sun
Examination Topics
Paper 1 Physical Geography
Tectonics
Structure of the earth - core, mantle, crust, plates - 7 major, 12 minor, distribution,
changing shape of continents - continental drift, Pangaea, oceanic & continental
crust, convection currents
Plate boundaries
1 Constructive or tensional (ocean ridge forms with gentle earthquake and
volcanic activity) e.g. Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, Iceland
2a. Destructive or compressional (ocean trench, subduction zone, ocean trenches.– violent
earthquake and
volcanic activity) e.g. Nazca and South American plates
2b. Collision (fold mountains and earthquake activity only) e.g. Indo-Australian & Eurasian plates - Himalayas
3. Conservative or passive (earthquake activity only) e.g. Pacific and North
American plates – San Andreas,
California
Volcanoes
World distribution - long narrow belts, along plate boundaries e.g. Pacific Ring of Fire, Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Terms: cone, vent, magma, magma chamber, lava bombs, ash, gases, nuee ardente (glowing ash cloud), pyroclastic material, mudflows, sill, dyke, tsunamis, geysers, caldera.
Types of volcano: active, dormant, extinct,
Volcano shapes:
i)Shield or Hawaiian (basic) e.g. Mauna Loa
ii)Composite cone or Vesuvian (acidic) e.g. Mt Vesuvius, Mt St Helens
iii)Sunken or Caldera e.g. Krakatoa
Basic lava – less silica, more fluid, non-viscous, (pahoehoe flows)
Acid lava – silica rich, viscous, like treacle, (aa flows)
Advantages & disadvantages of living in areas of tectonic activity, differences
in effects & responses between rural & urban areas, LEDC's & MEDC's.
Advantages
(+) good soils, minerals and rocks (make glass/gunpowder), communications, geothermal energy, tourism
Disadvantages
(-) snow melts = flooding, destruction to property, death
Prediction techniques
Geophysical – logging movement of magma
Chemical – measure gases released (SO2 +CO2 + H + radon gases increase prior eruption)
Tephrochronological – geologists map and record details of past ash-fall deposits (tephra). Analyse when taken place, how large an areas affected, interval times
*Montserrat, Caribbean Island and UK Independent Territory. Lies on boundary of 3 tectonic plates.
Chances Peak volcano in Soufriere Hills erupted 18 July 1995 after 400 yrs of lying dormant-continuous eruptions over next 3 yrs destroyed much of Montserrat's farmland. capital, Plymouth, evacuated along with most of the islands 11,000 inhabitants. Caused range of social, cultural, political and scientific problems for UK Govt.
1995 - steam explosions, ashfalls, earthquakes. Plymouth evacuated but people later returned after volcano settled.
1996 - Volcano active again, ash cloud developed and more ashfalls followed, earthquakes. South part of island evacuated, Plymouth becomes ghost town, 5,000 people moved to north of island,6,000 left for Antigua or Guadeloupe or Britain.
1997 - Pyroclastic flows, fires destroyed woodland, floods destroyed houses. June = 7 villages destroyed and covered by 3m of ash, airport abandoned, 23 people killed, volcano settles once more
Lasting Effects - South of island destroyed = most developed area with Plymouth (capital) + industry + port + services etc. Evacuees forced to live in makeshift shelters in north, few roads, settlements, inadequate sanitation and hospitals. Tourist industry collapsed, most of good farmland in south now buried under thick layers of ash, destroying crops.
Problems for the British Govt:
Offered 2,400 compensation per person (over 18) wanting to leave the island
41million offered in aid to develop the north
But islanders wanted 20,000 per person, rioting followed. Islanders wanted British citizenship, unemployment compensation + property protection
Earthquakes
How & why they happen, world distribution of activity – long narrow
belts, plate boundaries e.g. encircle Pacific Ocean, extend down length of
Mid-Atlantic Ocean. Measurement - seismograph, Richter Scale, Mercalli Scale,
focus, epicentre.
Types of fault - normal, reverse, rift, tear, transverse.
Prediction - animals, rise in water levels, cracks, foreshocks, lights in sky,
gas released
Prevention – reinforced buildings, birdcage structures, suspension, earthquake drills, survival kits
Primary & secondary effects – incl. mudflows (lahars), tsunamis
Variations in effects and responses to tectonic activity between MEDC’s and LEDC’s. Also differences between urban and rural areas
*The Kobe earthquake - location, labelled sketch map, what happened, why,
what people did.
·
Japan is one of world's most technologically advanced & richest nations
·
Japan - population of 124 million, density = 310/sq.km.
·
Occurred; 17th January 1995 5.40am
·
Location ; epicentre - Awaji Island off the coast.
Cities of Kobe, Kyoto and Osaka affected.
·
Strength (magnitude) - 7.2 on Richter scale
·
Over 600 aftershocks
·
Over 5 000 people killed, 30 000 injured
·
750 000 homeless
·
20 000 houses destroyed, 1% all buildings badly damaged
·
Many buildings built on alluvial soil & landfill -" pancaked"
·
Several hospitals in old Kobe - destroyed
·
Area of over 100 hectares destroyed by fire, gas pipes exploded. Strong winds
made it difficult to control fire
·
Large areas blacked out, water ran out. Smoke made it difficult to search for
survivors
·
Roads blocked by fallen buildings - emergency services couldn't get through
·
Expansion joints on bridges - some failed, some not big enough
·
World's largest container port - destroyed
·
Cost of damage - over $50 billion
·
Many people did not have insurance & lost their livelihood
·
Last earthquake in southern Japan - 1596
·
Worst earthquake in Japan in 50 years
·
Rain & strong wind increased landslide risk
·
No running water - sanitation problems - disease
Why did it happen?
·
Philippine plate moving beneath Eurasian plate locked, pressure built up Response
/ Ways to minimise damage
·
Survivors taken to central buildings with stockpiles of food, water & blankets
·
Since 1981 new houses have to be earthquake proof.
·
Some buildings in central Kobe have structures which are computer controlled & adjust
to earth movements
·
Earthquake drills in schools, offices, hospitals etc.
·
Leaflets, evacuation plans, disaster plans, civil defence
·
Survival kits, stockpiles - especially water & medicine
·
New designs & materials to withstand tremors for buildings, bridges etc.
Coasts
How are waves formed? Fetch, swash, backwash, constructive waves, destructive
waves
PROCESSES:
EROSION - hydraulic action ( pressure or power), corrasion (abrasion), attrition,
corrosion (solution)
TRANSPORT - boulders rolling (traction), saltation, suspension, solution
DEPOSITION and LONGSHORE DRIFT
LANDFORMS - wave-cut platforms, cliffs, caves, arches, stacks, stumps, beaches,
headlands, bays, spits, bars, tombolos
Coastal management issues - why are cliffs eroded, how can they be protected
- groynes, sea walls etc. Tourism.
*THE YORKSHIRE & HOLDERNESS COAST - EROSION, DEPOSITION & DEFENCES
Retreating ice sheets at end of last Ice Age left large deposits of boulder
clay 50 m high in places . Holderness.
Sea and weather have eroded the new coast at a rapid rate - 5.6 km lost since
Roman times, towards the harder rock of the Yorkshire Wolds, farmland and over
30 villages. Rate of recession = 2m/yr. Accelerated by human activity.
Hard rock - headlands. Scarborough & Flamborough Head - headland attacked
- caves, arches, stacks, stumps, cliff recession, wave-cut platform.
Soft rock - bays. Undercutting. Landslides. Holbeck Hall hotel June 1993.
Hornsea & Withernsea - concrete sea walls. Here & elsewhere along coast
- wooden groynes to reduce effect of waves & trap material moving along
the beach as a result of longshore drift to help widen beaches & protect
cliffs.
1991 - the local council at Mappleton built a sea wall at right angles to the
coastline, to trap beach material & provide a sea defence so that waves
don't reach the cliffs below Mappleton village. It cost £2m. 1994 the
project considered a success - material is trapped. But 2km south, the cliffs
no longer receive beach material by longshore drift, leading to more erosion
at Cliff Top Farm - several metres/yr., 6-7 times faster than before. 1996
farmer Sue Earle has to leave her house, now only 4m from the cliff edge & she
plans to sue the council for loss of livelihood.
Longshore drift.
Spurn Head - a spit. Formed from eroded material from cliffs of Holderness
being carried southwards by longshore drift and deposited in gentler waters.
Spurn has been breached by waves several times - now defended by groynes & sea
walls - arguably not a natural feature as it depends on these defences. Debate
as to whether it should be protected in future.
ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST SEA DEFENCES
· People have lived in these areas for generations. The problem has
got much worse in recent years.
·
Houses, schools, roads, hotels, agricultural land will be lost -livelihoods & the
whole economy of the area will be damaged. Insurance is difficult & expensive
to obtain.
·
Cost - local authorities cannot afford it, takes money from other areas.
·
Revetments & groynes get damaged & need replacing. Wooden groynes rot.
They do not protect the cliff from water which comes from the land, particularly
after heavy storms, this makes the cliff wet & unstable and prone to collapse.
·
Revetments & walls look ugly & out of place, puts tourists off.
·
The land is not that valuable - defences should only protect important cities & installations.
·
If cliffs are allowed to erode, they will feed sand to beaches - the only real
protection.
·
Sea defences simply make the problem worse further down the coast, now more
likely to work with nature.
Groynes reduce the amount of longshore drift and help sand to build up in front
of the cliff, helping to protect the base of the cliff from corrasion (abrasion).
A beach forces waves to break before hitting the land. Built near to sea
walls and wherever their cost can be justified.
Cost; £6,000 each - 200 m apart.
Revetments are used where the expense of a sea wall cannot be justified. They
break the force of the waves and trap beach material behind them to protect
the base of the cliffs. But they do not give total protection to the cliff
foot as a sea wall does. Groynes can be used to stop waves undermining the
revetment. Cost £1,000/m.
Gabions are cages of boulders built onto the face of the cliff above a sea
wall. They are only used where a settlement faces severe problems of erosion.
Cost £350/m.
Sea walls are the most effective means of preventing erosion, but are most
expensive. They deflect the power of the waves, but this usually means that
the waves wash away the beach material, then the waves undermine the sea
wall. Groynes are needed to hold the beach in place. Cost £2,000/m.
Beach feeding involves bringing in sand to raise the beach level and increase
its gradient, helps to protect the cliffs. Colliery waste could be dumped
50km off the coast to focus the waves onto the shore to form small bays & the
accumulation of sand.
Drainage pipes help drain water out of the cliff face, reducing risk of cliff
collapsing when it is too wet & saturated.
Coastal management issues - Tourism * Kenya
coral reef is damaged/destroyed – glass bottom boats at low tide hit reef
coral reefs = natural barrier, protecting coast from waves and erosion
Young fish hide in nooks and crannies of reef. Also reefs provide nursery for young fish which are later caught and eaten by locals
tourists take shells/coral away as souvenirs
mangrove trees grow in shallow tropical waters – prevent mud/silt from being washed out to sea (this settles on reef which dies when covered with sediment). Also home for birds and marine animals. Trees felled to make room for hotels and roads
Untreated sewage flows onto reef from resorts causing pollution
Attempts at management
Large areas roped off to prevent further damage from tourists
Visitors confined to exploring areas where coral already damaged in an attempt to save the rest
Resorts built further back from coastline
Glaciation
Ice sheet, ice cap, glacier, nevee, crevasse, accumulation, ablation, (advance/retreat of a glacier) - glacial period, interglacial period, land bridge
At present 2 ice sheets: i) Antartica (90% earth’s surface), ii) Greenland (8%)
Last ice age began 2.5 – 3 million years ago (covered third of earth’s land). 20 advances/retreats since. Last glaciers melted in Britain 10,000 years ago.
PROCESSES:
EROSION - plucking, abrasion, bulldozing
WEATHERING - freeze-thaw action
DEPOSITION - moraine - lateral, medial, terminal, ground, recessional, boulder clay (till), outwash deposits
LANDFORMS:
corries, aretes, pyramidal peaks, ribbon lakes, glacial troughs ( U-shaped valleys), hanging valleys, truncated spurs, roche moutonne, striations, erratics, drumlins, kames, eskers
e.g. *SNOWDONIA - CWM IDWAL & the NANT FFRANCON VALLEY
Human activity in a glaciated area
Hill sheep farming in the Lake District
Tourism and conflict in the Cairngorms
Dinorwic pumped storage HEP station, Snowdonia
*FARMING - Lake District, Snowdonia
Fell - common land high, steep area, rainfall 3000 mm, low sunshine/ temperature,
thin, poor, rocky soils - rough grazing. Enclosed land on slopes above valley
floor - rough grazing, maybe some improved soils. Valley floor - improved pasture,
lower, 5° C warmer, drier (1000 mm), sheltered. Soils deeper but may be
waterlogged -need lime. Used for hay, silage, grazing, lambing, shearing, dipping.
Improvements - flood prevention, drainage, lime/fertilser, reseed grass, clear
bracken, mend walls/fences, improved buildings.
Changes - smaller farms amalgamated, fewer workers - cottages= holiday accommodation,
help from Government & EU for farming, farmers involved in tourism - tea
room, ice cream, pony trekking, camping/caravan, farmhouse holidays.
*TOURISM - Cairngorms
Increased leisure time - demand for skiing, climbing, fell walking ,fishing,
hunting, bird-watching.
Aviemore, purpose built, (1966) all year round centre- theatre, cinema, shops,
swimming pool, sauna, ice rink, artificial ski-slope.
Major source of income for 40% of 2000 inhabitants of area.
Last wilderness in Europe, remote, wild 4000' plateau. Pine forest, deer, grouse,
birds of prey. World Heritage Site.500 sq. km.
FOR the funicular railway - LOCALS & TOURISTS
AGAINST the funicular railway - CONSERVATION GROUPS
·
Get tourists & skiers to summit in 3 minutes, even in 120 km/hr winds.
·
Chairlift cannot be used on many days each winter.
·
Carry twice as many people/hour
·
Extra tourists=more jobs & income.
·
Replaces ageing chairlift.
·
New cafe with centre to explain climate & wilderness features of mountains.
·
Highest 250m of track in a tunnel to minimise visual intrusion.
·
Visitors will not be allowed to set foot on the mountain from the centre.
·
More people= more trampling of fragile arctic ecosystem.
·
RSPB concerned rare birds will be disturbed ptarmigan, golden eagles, ospreys.
·
Ramblers Assoc. - walks& climbs threatened by extra skiers & visitors.
·
National Trust for Scotland & Scottish Natural Heritage -visually intrusive.
Avalanches
Tumblings of snow & ice moving rapidly down a steep slope. Caused by vibrations,
loud noises, passing vehicles, rapid thawing ( warm winds). Destroy villages & bury
people alive. Prevention;
snow fences, bridges, snow nets
planting shelter belts of conifers above villages
strengthened, wedge-shaped buildings
deliberate triggering of small avalanches
use of sniffer dogs & heat-seeking detectors to find people
monitoring avalanche conditions
*HEP - e.g. Dinorwic.
U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys - huge "head of water"
Corries can be dammed, natural ribbon lakes that can be enlarged -storage for
pumped schemes.
High, reliable rainfall, large catchment.
Low population density - cheap land, little opposition.
Rivers
Hydrological cycle – condensation, precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, surface run-off
The drainage basin system – inputs, flows, stores, outputs
Drainage basin processes - Precipitation, interception, surface storage, infiltration, percolation, groundwater, transpiration, throughflow, overland flow, groundwater flow, evaporation, saturation,
Drainage basin features – watershed, confluence, tributary, water table
Drainage basin Patterns – parallel, dendritic, trellised, radial
Courses of a river – upper (youth), middle (maturity), lower (old age)
Erosion processes – hydraulic action, corrosion, abrasion (corrasion), attrition
Transport processes – solution, floatation, suspension, saltation, traction
River features:
upper
waterfalls, rapids, vertical (downwards) and headward (backwards) erosion,
turbulent, narrow V-shaped valley, interlocking spurs, little deposition.
(EROSION = main process)
middle
mostly lateral erosion (sideways) on outside of meander bends with deposition
on inside, flow less turbulent, gentler gradient with flat floor to valley.
(TRANSPORTATION= main process)
lower
wide floodplain, alluvium, laminar (smooth) flow, very gentle gradient, raised
beds, levees, river terraces, meander cut-offs, ox-bow lakes, possibly delta
at mouth, estuaries. (DEPOSITION= main process)
*River Tees
must know land uses e.g uplands for forestry, dams, sheep farming and urban uses in estuaries. Main features and processes of each stage in river (see above)
Explain shape of a river bend cross-section – fastest flow, deposition = beach (slip-off slope), erosion = river cliff (bluff)
River Flood Hydrographs – shape affected by:
a) weather – e.g. heavy rainfall, frozen ground in winter
b) nature of the basin – e.g. geology - permeable, impermeable. Also slopes
c) land use – e.g. vegetation - tree cover, also rural and urban areas
d) river management – e.g. dam
Discharge (cumecs), lag time, peak
Flooding – explain how occurs, how affects people and the environment, flood prevention/control measures taken to reduce future risk/minimise impact.
Why might flooding be more harmful in LEDC’s than MEDC’s?
*Bangladesh (LEDC)
*Lynmouth, Devon (MEDC)
Rivers as a valuable resource:
- supply water for domestic use, industry, commerce. Provide leisure and recreation opportunities.
- support rich and varied wildlife.
- important means of disposing of sewage and industrial effluent.
- used for transport.
Conflicts arise through use of rivers in such ways e.g. flooding valleys to create reservoirs.
River Management Schemes - *Kielder Water
Rocks and Landscapes
Types:
Igneous – molten magma injected into earth’s crust
i) intrusive - deep underground = plutonic – large crystals e.g. granite
ii) extrusive - rises to surface – cools quickly – small crystals e.g. basalt
Sedimentary – material deposited on sea-bed, river-bed, land (more rarely). Pressure and chemical action compact and cement together. Bedding planes, strata, joints e.g. sandstone, limestone (formed from tiny sea creatures), coal (decaying vegetation)
Metamorphic – existing rocks changed by heat and/or pressure e.g. limestone ® marble, clay ® slate
Weathering:
i) Physical (mechanical) a) frost shattering (freeze-thaw)
b) exfoliation (onion-skin)
ii) biological
iii) chemical:-solution, oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation
Rock Structure:
i) Resistance e.g. hard rock = hills/mountains (soft rock = valleys), cliffs/headlands ( bays)
ii) Permeability:
a) permeable = water pass through either:
porous (contain tiny pores through which water can pass)
pervious (water flows along areas of weakness such as bedding planes)
b) impermeable = water not pass through
Rock Landscapes:
Granite
Upland areas e.g. moorland plateaus of SW England (tors) and Grampians (Cairngorms)
in Scotland. Intrusive batholiths, sills and dykes . Impermeable so much
surface drainage. Soils acidic and infertile. Sheep grazing and on fringes
dairy cattle. Fine building stone/ornamental stone. Breakdown of granite
produces kaolin (china clay) used in pottery industry. Also in manufacture
of paper, toothpaste, paint.
Limestone
Spring, limestone pavement, swallow hole, gorge, cave, joint, stalactite, stalagmite,
pillar, scar, dry valley
Found in areas of Peak District, Lake District, Yorkshire Dales. Solution weathering forms distinctive upland Karst scenery. Thin soils support only rough grazing of sheep/cattle. Little surface drainage. Recreation important – caving, potholing. Quarried for roadstone, lime for cement, steel making.
Chalk
Escarpment (cuesta) = scarp (steep), dip slope (more gentle). Often where chalk
(hard) and clay (soft) form in alternate outcrops. Porous so little surface
drainage and few rivers, but maybe dry valleys on dip slope (temporary rivers
after wet weather = bournes). Coastal outcrops give high cliffs e.g. Dover,
Flamborough Head. Thin soil = rough grazing and permanent pasture. Little
settlement, although some early spring line settlements where chalk meets
clay e.g. Fulking. Quarried for lime and cement
Clay
Wide and flat vales. Impermeable so abundant surface drainage. Forms weak cliffs
at the coast which slide and collapse (ref: COASTS - Holbeck Hall Hotel,
Scarborough). Heavy soils suitable for livestock farming, especially dairying
and beef. Quarried to make bricks.
Paper 2 - Human Geography
Managing Resources and Tourism
Key Ideas
· Non renewable resources such as fossil fuels are finite and being
used rapidly
·
As populations grow and countries develop - resource use increases.
·
Fuels - coal, oil gas and Energy - electricity. Advantages & disadvantages
of the different ways of producing electricity.
·
Renewable energy sources - advantages & disadvantages.
·
Conservation / resource substitution
The present energy situation and the future - MEDC's and LEDC's.
·
*MILFORD HAVEN OIL SPILL - case study of environmental impact of energy resource
exploitation & effects on a coastline and National Park.
. *EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL - Alaska oil - problems of exploitation and how overcome.
Large-scale and long lasting environmental impact of spill.
Managing resources - further ideas and examples
Distinction between fuel and energy
Thermal power stations and the National Grid
Adv/Disadv of using coal, oil, gas, nuclear, fuel wood = non renewable resources
Fossil Fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and their formation.
Relationship between energy consumption and development and population growth
Adv /Disadv of alternative sources – solar, tidal, wave, biogas, biomass, geothermal, wind, HEP (hydro-electric power) =Renewable
Solar e.g. Africa, India
Tidal e.g. Severn estuary
Waves e.g. Norway
Biogas/biomass e.g. Brazil
Geothermal e.g. Iceland, New Zealand
Wind e.g. Cornwall
HEP e.g. Dinorwic (North Wales), Itaipu (Brazil)
OPEC (Organisation for Petroleum Exporting Countries) and its effect on world oil prices
Energy and the environment - Causes and effects of global warming, acid rain, ozone layer damage – measures taken to reduce pollution by governments and individuals
The need for sustainable development - energy conservation – recycling
Tourism - Key Ideas
Reasons for increase in leisure/recreation time:
aging population
shorter working week
greater affluence
longer holidays with pay.
Trends - car ownership, package holidays abroad
·
Environments offer possibilities for tourism development-natural, cultural & man-made
·
Tourism brings advantages and disadvantages - economic, social, cultural, environmental.
This can lead to conflict.
·
Conflicts need to be carefully managed to protect people and environments whilst
generating income and other benefits e.g. *Cairngorms (Link between glacial
scenery and tourism)
MEDC's - The Peak District & National Parks - where are they, what are
they. What is a honeypot. The Cairgorms. Costa-del-Sol.
LEDC's - Kenya - coastal areas & National Parks.
·
Where are they, why do they attract tourists
·
Advantages and disadvantages of tourism
·
Green tourism - the need for stewardship and conservation . Sustainability
*Peak District National Park
National Parks were set up to;
Preserve & protect areas of natural beauty - landscape, wildlife & historic
buildings
Give people from cities access to countryside
Look after the interests of people who live & work in the countryside to
keep the local economy going
Key features of the Peak District;
First National Park, covers 1404 sq. km
Land is privately owned
Run by National Park Authorities
Most money comes from the Government, some from local authorities
People attracted by large stately homes, limestone caves, stalactites & stalagmites,
hiking, climbing etc.
Advantages and disadvantages of tourism
Advantages
Economic -30% jobs linked to tourism -hotels, B&B's, restaurants, cafes
etc. Also shops, gifts etc. 1.5 million people stay overnight. 17-20 million
visit for the day.
Can provide farmers with extra income.
Amenities - locals can use tourist facilities -buses, shops - but see 3 below
Environmental - the popularity of countryside led to growth of organisations
like the National Trust & the Countryside Commission. They help with projects
to protect & enhance the environment.
Disadvantages
Erosion - footpaths. Fires, damage to stone walls & fences.
Pollution - air, boats.
Commuter villages, second homes - local shops & services decline, -locals
cannot afford house process.
Traffic - narrow roads get congested, difficult for farmers. Parking. See 1
above. Most people arrive by car. Up to 100,000 cars a day on summer Sundays,
22 million cars/year.
Threatened habitats - vegetation damaged, birds & animals affected.
Conflicts
water - reservoirs flood land but are needed
forestry - looks out of place but need the pulp & paper
quarries - limestone needed for road building etc. Dust & noise from blasting,
heavy traffic on narrow roads.
Sustainable tourism
Tourism which allows today's visitors to enjoy an area without affecting the
ability of future visitors to do the same.
·
design, sitting & management of new developments to fit in with old & environment,
screen unsightly buildings & facilities.
·
encourage visitors for more of the year.
·
educate the public to respect the countryside & those who live & work
there - Country Code.
·
road signs to direct traffic to least congested routes, one-way systems, park & ride,
encourage use of public transport, mini-buses, limit car parking, cycling,
walking. e.g. Goyt Valley scheme.
·
admission & parking charges.
·
plan new footpaths, signposts, artificial surfaces, fence areas off.
·
litter bins, recycling.
*KENYA - tourism in a LEDC
Reasons for growth
Improved standards of living, more paid holidays, flexible working, earlier
retirement
Improved transport - quicker, easier, cheaper
Package holidays - easy, convenient, affordable
Increased awareness - education, TV, newspapers & magazines, fashion.
LEDC's develop tourism as a way of economic progress - attract foreign investment & currency
Attractions
Beautiful country, sandy beaches, warm, clear seas, coral reef, Rift Valley
Wildlife game parks ( rhino, lion, zebra, giraffe, elephant), tribal groups
e.g. Masai
On equator - 30° C, lots of sunshine.
Mombasa - linear development of expensive hotels & beach complexes-scuba
diving, windsurfing, boat trips, fishing trips, at night -local music & entertainment.
Relatively good roads, good rail links, air transport.
Advantages of tourism
37% total export earnings - hotels, transport, shops, guides, souvenirs. Needed
to pay for imports.1991=£400million.
Just under 1 million tourists - Germany, UK, USA. Average stay = 16 days
Kenya uses some of income to improve infrastructure , develop facilities, protect
wildlife & scenery e.g. Bamburi Nature Trail near Mombasa.
Problems of tourism
Overcrowding of game parks & accommodation. 90% tourists visit south & east.
Harassment of wildlife - tourist numbers, mini-buses, balloons e.g. Amboseli.
Poaching of elephants
Fragile grassland ecosystem & coral reefs. Coral is damaged by sandy, silty
water & pollution. Snorkellers disturb sand.Tourists trample on it or anchor
boats.Grassland eroded - traffic creates dust & worn huge tracks in landscape.
Local people "trade" their culture - souvenirs or performing. Farmers
either attracted into tourist industry or pushed inland.Huge gap between locals & tourists.Masai
forced off their traditional grazing land when National Parks created.
Tourists may offend locals e.g. scantily dressed in Muslim areas.
Beach hotels take up farmland & can spoil natural beauty.
Pressure on resources like fresh water.
Seasonal - rainy months April/May. Tourism affected by - Gulf crisis, recession,
safety- fewer people come.
Little of the profit benefits local people.
ECO-TOURISM - sustainable tourism
Other activities developed to take pressure off above - climbing, white water
rafting, more distant safaris, diving off coral coast, hotels built in west,
measures to protect coral reef.
Attempts made to preserve Masai way of life - improved settled housing, controlled
flow of visitors to traditional Masai village to watch dancing & selling
of crafts.
Bamburi Nature Trail near Mombasa - old cement quarry reclaimed. No soil, plants
or wildlife - trees planted, insects introduced - transformed into tropical
rainforest, wildlife & tourist facilities added. 100,000 visitors/year.
Industry
· Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, fixed, heavy, footloose, light,
hi-tech, formal, informal - define and give an example of each.
· Geographical inertia, break of bulk, agglomeration, Development Area,
Enterprise Zone, de-industrialiasation, diversification - explain what each term
means
and give an example of an industry or location.
·
A factory as a system - inputs, processes & outputs. Explain & give
an example.
·
Factors influencing where factories locate - transport & communications,
raw materials, labour, capital, energy, markets, government policy - explain
how and why each factor is important & give an example of an industry.
Types of Industry
Heavy
Light
Fixed
Footloose
Cottage (pre industrial. Revolution – e.g. Shetland jumpers knitted at home in cottages)
Factory
Multinational or Transnational Corporation (many types of business and different countries)
Types of Industrial Location
Near to raw materials – e.g. steel works (heavy, bulky)
Nearness to market – e.g. cars (size, bulk), bakery (fresh), furniture (fragile)
Near to labour supply – e.g. High Tech electronics (skilled workers)
Government Incentives – NE (high unemployment), provide grants, loans, tax reductions
·
Why do modern factories locate on industrial estates /science parks on greenfield
sites.
·
The role of multinationals in industrial change.
·
Industry in LEDCs - advantages & disadvantages of setting up industry in
a LEDC, types of industry, government policies - BRAZIL / SOUTH KOREA
*IRON & STEEL IN SOUTH WALES - case study of a traditional, fixed industry.
*CHANGING INDUSTRY IN SOUTH WALES - case study of change to Hi-Tech industry
Why Wales?
Govt incentives – WDA grants etc
Research – universities at Aberystwyth, Cardiff, Bangor, Swansea
Transport – Cardiff airport, motorway M4,
Raw materials – coal/steel + water, electricity
Rural environment – beaches, golf courses
Cheap, ready prepared industrial sites
Markets – Midlands, SE England
Workforce – plentiful, low wage rates
Growth
Raw materials - coal, iron ore, limestone. Early C19 - 8 tonnes coal + 4 tonnes
iron ore=1 tonne iron. inputs, processes, outputs -system.
World markets.
Mid C20 as raw materials ran out, near coast so could import - break of bulk,
inertia. Inland steelworks e.g. Ebbw Vale, closed.
Economies of scale - integrated steel works, P. Talbot.
Decline
Demand fallen - steel using industries declined, alternatives (aluminum, plastics),
foreign competition ( South Korea, Japan). 100,000 jobs lost in coal & steel
1976-96.
Regeneration
WDA - 1976, Development Area, Swansea Enterprise Zone, European Coal & Steel
Community loans. Multiplier. Diversification.
Inward investment ( from overseas) attracted by large workforce, transport
infrastructure (M4), local market, access to ports, financial incentives, advanced
factories, countryside.
380 overseas firms - cars & high-tech. Multinationals (LG).
Imperial Park, Newport (extension to M4 corridor) Imperial Science Park was
created to encourage high tech industry. Development. Recently Korean companies
moved in, created 20,000 jobs - multiplier effect
High Tech Industry in the UK
*M4 Corridor (the ‘silicon valley’) - modern, light manufacturing involve micro-electronics, computers and telecommunications.
Components – Assembly Plants – Agglomerate – small but highly skilled workforce – factories built on industrial estates/greenfield sites that are well planned, landscaped with good transport links
Problems
Many multi-nationals – close if cut-backs made
House prices rise
Increased road traffic
*Industry in a developed country - Japan
Electric City – region of Osaka given to high tech electronics
Reasons for growth:
Natural harbour
Import raw materials
Flat land of Osaka Bay
Population 9 million – highly skilled, dedicated workforce and large, wealthy domestic market
Pyramid organisation – ends with Panasonic (multinational)
Main problem - Competition from NIC’s (newly industrialised countries), especially SE Asia. Solution – research and development, 11 new science parks
*Industry in a developing country - Brazil
Industry in LEDCs - advantages & disadvantages of setting up industry in a LEDC, types of industry, government policies
Sao Paulo – 19th century small town at centre of coffee growing industry. Rapid indn 1960’s and 70’s = economic miracle. New industry. = iron and steel and engineering due to raw materials, manufacture of machinery, aircraft, cars (Ford, VW, Mercedes, GM)
Advantages for industry
1.Large country with large population - 1994=159 million, 75% in towns. Industry
concentrated in SE. large workforce & growing internal market. Access to
growing S.American mkt.
2. Large amounts of raw materials-high grade iron ore, tin, bauxite, uranium.
3. Government encouraged overseas investment.
4. Developed nuclear & alternative energy resources e.g. HEP ( 90% country's
electricity) – Itaipu, biomass.
5. Relatively good transport infrastructure in SE.
Further advantages:
Cheap labour
Domestic market
Export to rest of S. America, USA, Middle East
Disadvantages
Low skills/education levels compared to MEDC's.
Lack of fossil fuels for energy developments. Badly affected by price rises in 1970s.
Economic miracle - largely based on loans - debt problem ( $118 million 1991), 30% income from exports goes to pay off debts. High inflation. Destruction of rain forest to generate income from mining, HEP, ranching.
People attracted to SE from rural areas because of job opportunities – shanty towns.
Also:
Air pollution
Traffic congestion
Sky-scraper jungle
High land prices and lack of open space
Favelas growing
Still >one third Sao Paulo’s working population in informal sector jobs
Solutions
Creation of New Towns - New employment in formal sector jobs e.g. Pepsi – rising standard of living
Increasing wealth put back into country to improve run-down areas (NB: need to clear favelas for this)
Alternative/Appropriate Technology
Contributes to sustainable way of life for rich/poor alike
e.g. rich – appropriate - high tech
poor – appropriate – low cost schemes
local raw materials
labour intensive
harmony with environment
Intermediate Technology (IT)
e.g. Kenya
Massai Housing Project
Roofing materials
Energy
Population
World patterns
Distribution – uneven, changes over time, dot map/topological map. Density – divide
total population of a place by its area (sq km), choropleth map, dense, sparse
Physical and human factors:
i) climate
ii) vegetation and soils
iii) political
iv) social
v) economic ( incl. natural resources and water supply)
*Uneven population distribution at a national level - Britain. compare high
densities in connurbations with low in scottish highlands, central wales,
pennines
Population Change
Birth rate, death rate, natural increase, demographic transition model, age-sex pyramids
Problems of rapid population growth:
a) 95% taking place in LEDCs
b) pressure on governments to provide for people
c) pressure on environment
d) increased risk of famine and malnutrition
e) greater differences between richer and poorer countries
Ideas of population growth - Malthusian=geometric rate, S-shape, J-shape
Reasons for variations in birth and death rates:
a) age structure
b) diet, housing, living conditions
c) medicine, health care
d) family planning and contraception
e) political factors
f) social and religious factors
g) economic conditions
Population change presents opportunities and problems
Strategies for managing population growth: 1 child policy - China, Korea, Singapore, Philippines. Compare countries encouraging growth - France, CIS, Bolivia
*China – desperate to reduce population – 1979 introduced one child policy – how does this work? How did the Chinese react? What problems has it brought? Has it achieved the targets it set out to?
*France – policy on increasing the population. How has France encouraged couples to have more children? Has France achieved it’s population targets?
*Brazil – redistributing population - Brasilia
Future trends - an aging population
As medical care improves. Problems for developed countries - increased demand for pensions, national health medical care, residential homes, social services
Environmental Impact of population growth
e.g. land reclamation/drainage in Japan (MEDCs) and resource expoitation e.g. deforestation in Brazil, Nepal (LEDCs)
Migration
Definition, types e.g. forced/voluntary + examples. Causes - push/pull model and factors. Duration - permanent, semi-permanent, seasonal, daily + examples
PERMANENT - *New commonwealth immigrants in the UK. Late 1940's and 1950's.Uneven concentrations of ethnic groups e.g. London, West Midlands urban areas. problems faced - housing, education, jobs, discrimination, community relations
SEMI-PERMANENT - *Turkish migrants into Germany. After WWII rebuilding of Germany.1983 4.3million gastarbeiter (29% from Turkey), unskilled jobs
SEASONAL INTERNATIONAL - *Mexican harvesters in California. Since 1940's - farming, hotels/restaurants, many illegal, border patrol problems. Effects on US workers
Advantages and disadvantages of migration for losing and receiving countries
RURAL DEPOPULATION IN THE DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING WORLDS - Issues: Overcrowding (favelas in Brazil), congestion, housing, health, education, employment, transport
Record-breaking polar explorer Andrew Cooney visited the College as part of a short tour of selected schools in the country. Andrew recounted his journey to the children through a speech and his own slide -show presentation. He then allowed the pupils to have some hands-on interaction by looking at the sled he used during his expeditions and a chance to try out his equipment. Andrew holds the record as the youngest person ever to walk to the South Pole, at the age of 23. The expedition concluded on January 2, 2003 after a long 53-day trek and three long years of planning.
Return to Home Page
